Now the examples I have given indicate intelligence and an ingenious, subtle use of it for opportune profit; but there are others that display, in combination with understanding, a social sense and mutual affection, as is the case with the barbierThe anthias of the above passage is probably the Mediterranean barbier, Serranus anthias C.V., although elsewhere it is sometimes obviously a much larger fish of uncertain identity. On the identification Cf. Thompson on Aristotle, vi. 17 (570 b 19); s.v.; Mair, introd. to his ed. of Oppian, pp. liii-lxi; Marx, , i. 2375-2377; ii. 2415; Schmid, , Suppb. xi, 1907-1910, p. 273; Brands, , pp. 147 f.; Cotte, , pp. 69-73; Saint-Denis, , pp. 5-7. Cf. also 981 e infra. and the parrot-fish. For if one parrot-fish swallows the hook, the others present swarm upon the line and nibble it away; and the same fish, when any of their kind have fallen into the net, give them their tails from outside; when they eagerly fix their teeth in these, the others pull on them and bring them through in tow.On this story cf. also Aelian, i. 4; Pliny, xxxii. 11; Ovid, 9 ff.; Oppian, iv. 40 ff. Note also Aelian, v. 22, on mice. And barbiers are even more strenuous in rescuing their fellows: getting under the line with their backs, they erect their sharp spines and try to saw the line through and cut if off with the rough edge.Cf. Pliny, ix. 182; xxxii. 13; Ovid, 45 ff.; Oppian, iii. 321 ff.

Yet we know of no land animal that has the courage to assist another in danger - not bear or boar or lioness or panther. True it is that in the arena those of the same kind draw close together and huddle in a circle; yet they have neither knowledge nor desire to help each other. Instead, each one flees to get as far as possible from a wounded or dying fellow. That tale of the elephantsCf. 972 b supra; Jacoby, iii, p. 146, frag. 51 b. On the community spirit of elephants see also Aelian, v. 49; vi. 61; vii. 15; al. carrying brushwood to the pits and giving their fallen comrade a ramp to mount is monstrous and far-fetched and dictates, as it were, that we are to believe it on a king’s prescription - that is, on the writs of Juba.Juba was king of Mauretania (25 b.c. - c. a.d. 23). Suppose it to be true: it merely proves that many sea creatures are in no way inferior in community spirit and intelligence to the wisest of the land animals. As for their sociability, I shall soon make a special plea on that topic.

Now fishermen, observing that most fish evade the striking of the hook by such countermoves as wrestlers use, resorted, like the Persians,Cf. Herodotus, vi. 31; iii. 149; Plato, 698 d; Fraenkel on Aesch. 358. On kinds of nets see Mair, L.C.L. , pp. xl ff. to force and used the dragnet, since for those caught in it there could be no escape with the help of reason or cleverness. For mullet and rainbow-wrasseCoris iulis Gth. Cf. Thompson on Aristotle, ix. 3 (610 b 7); , p. 91; Schmid, op. cit. p. 292; Brands, op. cit. p. 157; Cotte, op. cit. pp. 59-60; Saint-Denis, op. cit. p. 52. are caught by casting-nets and round nets, as are also the breamIn particular, probably C.V. On the identification cf. Thompson on Aristotle, vi. 7 (570 b 20); , p. 161; Cotte, op. cit. pp. 105-107; Saint-Denis, op. cit. pp. 65-66. and the sargueIn particular, probably Sargus culgaris Geoff. On the identification Cf. Thompson on Aristotle, v. 9 (543 a 7); , pp. 227-228; Cotte, op. cit. pp. 105-107; Saint-Denis, op. cit. pp. 99, 107-108; Keller, , ii, p. 370; Gossen-Steier, , Second Series, ii. 365. and the gobyA term mostly for the black goby, Gobius niger L., the most common Mediterranean species. On the identification Cf. Thompson on Aristotle, viii. 14 (598 a 12); , pp. 137-139; Gossen, , Second Series, ii. 794-796. and the sea-bass. The so-called net fish, that is surmulletThe red or plain surmullet, Mullus barbatus L., and the striped or common surmullet, Mullus surmuletus L. On this fish cf. Cotte, op. cit. pp. 98-101; Keller, op. cit. ii, pp. 364 f.; Prechac, xiv (1936), pp. 102-105; xvii (1939), p. 279; Saint-Denis, op. cit. pp. 68 f.; Schmid, op. cit. pp. 310-312; Steier, , xvi. 496-503; Thompson, , pp. 264-268; Andrews, , xlii (1949), pp. 186-188. and giltheadChrysophrys aurata C.V., called gilthead from the golden band that runs from eye to eye. On this fish cf. Wellmann, , iii. 2517-2518; Keller, op. cit. ii, pp. 369 ff.; , vii. 1578; Schmid, op. cit. pp. 297-298; Thompson, , pp. 292-294; Cotte, op. cit. pp. 73-74; Saint-Denis, op. cit. pp. 80-81. and sculpin,Scorpaena scrofa, L. and S. porcus L. On this fish Cf. Cotte, op. cit. pp. 111-113; Saint-Denis, op. cit. pp. 103-104; Thompson on Aristotle, v. 9 (543 a 7); , pp. 245 f. are caught in seines by trawling: accordingly it was quite correct for Homer, v. 487; Cf. Platt, v, p. 255; Fraenkel, Aesch. ii, p. 190. to call this kind of net a catch-all. Codfish,Principally the hake and rockling, sp. and sp. Not to be confused with γαλεός, a general term for sharks and dogfishes. Cf. Andrews, , xxxix (1949), pp. 1-16. like bass,Cf. Oppian, iii. 121 ff. have devices even against these. For when the bass perceives that the trawl is approaching, it forces the mud apart and hammers a hollow in the bottom. When it has made room enough to allow the net to overrun it, it thrusts itself in and waits until the danger is past.

Now when the dolphin is caught and perceives itself to be trapped in the net, it bides its time, not at all disturbed but well pleased, for it feasts without stint on the fish that have been gathered with no trouble to itself. But as soon as it comes near the shore, it bites its way through the net and makes its escape. Yet if it should not get away in time, on the first occasion it suffers no harm: the fishermen merely sew rushes to its crest and let it go. But if it is taken a second time, they recognize it from the seam and punish it with a beating. This, however, rarely occurs: most dolphins are grateful for their pardon in the first instance and take care to do no harm in the future.On the alliance of dolphins and fisherman see Aelian, ii. 8; xi. 12; Pliny, ix. 29 ff.

Further, among the many examples of wariness, precaution, or evasion, we must not pass over that of the cuttlefishCf. Aristotle, ix. 37 (621 b 28); Athenaeus, 323 d-e; Pliny, ix. 84; Horace, i. 4. 100; Aelian, i. 34; Mair on Oppian, iii. 156.: it has the so-called mytis Aristotle, iv. 1 (524 b 15); iv. 5 (679 a 1). beside the neckUnder the mouth, says Aristotle. full of black liquid, which they call ink. Tholos, mud,turbidity. When it is come upon, it discharges the liquid to the purpose that the sea shall be inked out and create darkness around it while it slips through and eludes the fisherman’s gaze. In this it imitates Homer’sFor example, , v. 345. gods who often in a dark cloud snatch up and smuggle away those whom they are pleased to save. But enough of this.

As for cleverness in attacking and catching prey, we may perceive subtle examples of it in many different species. The starfish,[Aristotle], v. 15 (548 a 7 f.), an interpolated passage; nor can we be certain that it was known to Plutarch. See also Mair on Oppian, ii. 181. for example, knowing that everything with which it comes in contact dissolves and liquefies, offers its body and is indifferent to the contact of those that overtake or meet it. You know, of course, the property of the torpedoOr electric ray or crampfish: for the ancient references see Thompson on Aristotle, ic. 37 (620 b 12-23); , pp. 169-172; Aelian, i. 36; ix. 14; Pliny, ix. 143; Mair, L.C.L. , p. lxix, and on ii. 56; iii. 149; Philo, 30 (p. 115); Antigonus, 48; Boulenger, , pp. 189 f.: not only does it paralyse all those who touch it, but even through the net creates a heavy numbness in the hands of the trawlers. And some who have experimented further with it report that if it is washed ashore alive and you pour water on it from above, you may perceive the numbness mounting to the hand and dulling your sense of touch by way of the water which, so it seems, suffers a change and is first infected.Cf. the upward infection of the basilisk, Pliny, viii. 78. Having, therefore, an innate sense of this power, it never makes a frontal attack or endangers itself; rather, it swims in a circle around its prey and discharges its shocks as if they were darts, thus poisoning first the water, then through the water the creature which can neither defend itself nor escape, being held fast as if by chains and frozen stiff.

The so-called fishermanThe fishing-frog, Lophius piscatorius L.: Aristotle, ix. 37 (620 b 12); Pliny, ix. 144; Mair on Oppian, ii. 86; Strömberg, , pp. 122 f. is known to many; he gets his name from his actions. Aristotle ix. 37 (622 a 1); cf. iv. 1 (524 a 3), iv. 6 (531 b 6); Pliny, ix. 83 ff.; Mair on Oppian, ii. 122. says that the cuttlefish also makes use of this stratagem: he lets down, like a fishing line, a tentacle from his neck which is naturally designed to extend to a great length when it is released, or to be drawn to him when it is pulled in. So when he espies a little fish, he gives it the feeler to bite and then by degrees imperceptibly draws it back toward himself until the prey attached to the arm is within reach of his mouth.

As for the octopus’ change of colour,Cf. Aristotle, ix. 37 (622 a 8); Mair on Oppian, ii. 233. Athenaeus, 316 f, 317 f, 513 d; Pliny, ix. 87; Antigonus, 25, 50; Aelian, i. 1; and Wellmann, , li, p. 40. PindarFrag. 43 Schroeder, 208 Turyn, 235 Bowra (p. 516, ed. Sandys L.C.L.); cf. . 916 c and Turyn’s references. has made it celebrated in the words To all the cities to which you resort Bring a mind like the changing skin of the seabeast; and Theognis215-216; cf. . 96 f, 916 c. There are many textual variants, but none alters the sense. likewise: Be minded like the octopus’ hue: The colour of its rock will meet the view.Or Keep a mind as multicoloured as the octopus, With the rock whereon it sits homologous (Andrews).

The chameleon,See Thompson on Aristotle, ii. 11 (503 b 2); Ogle on iv. 11 (692 a 22 ff.). See also Aelian, , iv. 33; and cf. Pliny, viii. 122 for the chameleon’s exclusive diet of air; nec alio quam aeris alimento. to be sure, is metachromatic, but not from any design or desire to conceal itself; it changes colour uselessly from fear, being naturally timid and cowardly. And this is consistent with the abundance of air in it, as TheophrastusFrag. 189 Wimmer (p. 225); Aristotle says merely, The change takes place when it is inflated by air. says; for nearly the whole body of the creature is occupied by its lungs,Which confirms Karsch’s emendation of Aristotle, ii. 11 (503 b 21); for Theophrastus and Plutarch must have had lungs and not membranes in their text of Aristotle. which shows it to be full of air and for this reason easily moved to change colour. But this same action on the part of the octopus is not an emotional response, but a deliberate change, since it uses this device to escape what it fears and to capture what it feeds on: by this deceit it can both seize the latter, which does not try to escape, and avoid the former, which proceeds on its way. Now the story that it eats its own tentaclesSee 965 e supra and the note; Pliny, ix. 87; 1059 e, 1098 e, fr. 53 (Bernardakis, vol. VII, p. 77). is a lie, but it is true that it fears the moray and the conger. It is, in fact, maltreated by them; for it cannot do them harm, since they slip from its grasp. On the other hand, when the crawfishThe langouste as distinguished from the homard; see Aelian, i. 32; ix. 25; x. 38; Thompson on Aristotle, viii. 2 (590 b 16); , pp. 102 ff.; Pliny, ix. 185; Antigonus, 92. has once got them in its grasp, it wins the victory easily, for smoothness is no aid against roughness; yet when the octopus has once thrust its tentacles inside the crawfish, the latter succumbs. And so Nature has created this cycleThe octopus is worsted by the moray and the conger, which in turn are defeated by the crawfish, which (to complete the cycle) becomes the octopus’ prey. The whole engagement is graphically portrayed in Oppian, ii. 253-418. For Nature’s battle see, e.g., Pliny, viii. 79. and succession of mutual pursuit and flight as a field for the exercise and competitive practice of adroitness and intelligence.

We have, to be sure, heard AristotimusCf. 972 a supra. Valentine Rose, curiously enough, emended to Aristotle (see ix. 6, 612 b 4) and included this passage in Frag. 342. See further Mair on Oppian, ii. 226. telling us about the hedgehog’s foreknowledge of the winds; and our friend also admired the V-shaped flight of cranes.Cf. 967 b supra. I can produce no hedgehog of Cyzicus or Byzantium,Perhaps he is learnedly confuting Aristotimus (972 a supra) by drawing on Aristotle. but instead the whole body of sea-hedgehogs,i.e. the sea-urchin, regarded by the ancients as a sort of marine counterpart of the hedgehog because of the similar spines. which, when they perceive that storm and surf are coming, ballast themselves with little stonesCf. 967 b supra, of bees. in order that they may not be capsized by reason of their lightness or be swept away by the swell, but may remain fixed in position through the weight of their little rocks.

Again, the cranes’ change of flight against the windCf. 967 b supra. is not merely the action of one species: all fish generally have the same notion and always swim against wave and current, taking care that a blast from the rear does not fold back their scales and expose and roughen their bodies. For this reason they always present the prow of their bodies to the waves, for in that way head first they cleave the sea, which depresses their gills and, flowing smoothly over the surface, keeps down, instead of ruffling up, the bristling skin. Now this, as I have said, is common to all fish except the sturgeon,Probably usually the common sturgeon, Acipenser sturio: see Thompson, , pp. 62 f.; Aelian, viii. 28, speaks of it as a rare and sacred fish; see 981 d infra. Cf. Milton’s Ellops drear ( x. 525). which, they say, swims with wind and tide and does not fear the harrowing of its scales since the overlaps are not in the direction of the tail.

The tunnyCf. Aelian, ix. 42; Aristotle, viii. 13 (598 b 25 f.). is so sensitive to equinox and solstice that it teaches even men themselves without the need of astronomical tables; for wherever it may be when the winter solstice overtakes it, in that same place it stands and stays until the equinox. As for that clever device of the crane,See 967 c supra. the grasping of the stone by night so that if it falls, she may awake from sleep - how much cleverer, my friend, is the artifice of the dolphin, for whom it is illicit to stand still or to cease from motion.Reiske may have been right in suspecting a trimeter of unknown origin in these words. For its nature is to be ever activeCf. Aelian, xi. 22. The dolphin even nurses its young while in motion; Pliny, xi. 235; and cf. Aristotle, ii. 13 (504 b 21 ff.).: the termination of its life and its movement is one and the same. When it needs sleep, it rises to the surface of the sea and allows itself to sink deeper and deeper on its back, lulled to rest by the swinging motion of the ground swellAs it were, the cradle of the deep. until it touches the bottom. Thus roused, it goes whizzing up, and when it reaches the surface, again goes slack, devising for itself a kind of rest combined with motion.But see Pliny, x. 210, where it is reported that dolphins are actually heard snoring. And they say that tunnies do the same thing for the same reason.

Having just a moment ago given you an account of the tunny’s mathematical foreknowledge of the reversal of the sun, of which Aristotle viii. 13 (598 b 25). is a witness, I beg you to hear the tale of their arithmetical learning. But first, I swear, I must mention their knowledge of optics, of which AeschylusNauck, p. 96, frag. 308; Cf. Aelian, ix. 42. seems not to have been ignorant, for these are his words: Squinting the left eye like a tunny fish. They seem, indeed, to have poor sight in one eye. And it is for this reason that when they enter the Black Sea, they hug one bank on the right, and the otherSee Thompson on Aristotle, viii. 13 (598 b 19 ff.); , p. 84; Pliny, ix. 50. They follow the opposite shore when returning, thus keeping the same eye towards the land. when they are going out, it being very prudent and sagacious of them always to entrust the protection of themselves to the better eye. Now since they apparently need arithmetic to preserve their consociation and affection for each other, they have attained such perfection of learning that, since they take great pleasure in feeding and schooling together,Cf. Aristotle, ix. 2 (610 b 1 f.); Aelian, xv. 3, 5. they always form the school into a cube, making it an altogether solid figure with a surface of six equal plane sides; then they swim on their way preserving their formation, a square that faces both ways. Certainly a hooerA watcher posted on a tall mast to warn fishermen of the approach of a shoal and to give a count. See Thompson on Aristotle, iv. 10 (537 a 19); , p. 87; Gow on Theocritus, iii. 26; Mair on Oppian, iii. 638. Accounts of the ancient tunny fishery are given by Thompson, , pp. 84-88; Pace, , N.S. xii (1931/2), pp. 326 ff.; and Rhode, , Suppb. xviii (1900), pp. 1-78. An account of the ancient and the modern tunny fishery is given by Parona, , no. 68, 1919. watching for tunnies who counts the exact number on the surface at once makes known the total number of the shoal, since he knows that the depth is equal one to one with the breadth and the length.