ARISTOTIMUS. In general, then, the evidence by which the philosophers demonstrate that beasts have their share of reason is their possession of purpose Cf. 961 c supra . and preparation and memory and emotions and care for their young See the essay De Amore Prolis, Mor. 493 a ff. passim . and gratitude for benefits and hostility to what has hurt them; to which may be added their ability to find what they need and their manifestations of good qualities, such as courage Plato, at least, held that, philosophically speaking, no beast is brave; Laches , 196 d; Republic , 430 b. and sociability and continence and magnanimity. Let us ask ourselves if marine creatures exhibit any of these traits, or perhaps some suggestion of them, that is extremely faint and difficult to discern (the observer only coming at long last to the opinion that it may be descried); whereas in the case of terrestrial and earth-born animals it is easy to find remarkably plain and unanswerable proofs of every one of the points I have mentioned. In the first place, then, behold the purposeful demonstrations and preparations of bulls See Mair on Oppian, Cyn. ii. 57. stirring up dust when intent on battle, and wild boars whetting their tusks. Aelian, De Natura Animal. vi. 1; Philo, 51 (p. 125); Homer, Iliad , xiii. 474 f. Since elephants’ tusks are blunted by wear when, by digging or chopping, they fell the trees that feed them, they use only one tusk for this purpose and keep the other always pointed and sharp for defence. Cf. Pliny, Nat. Hist. viii. 8; viii. 71 of the rhinoceros; Aelian, De Natura Animal. vi. 56; Antigonus, Hist. Mirab. 102. Lions Cf. Mor . 520 f; Aelian, De Natura Animal. ix. 30. always walk with paws clenched and claws retracted so that these may not be dulled by wear at the point or leave a plain trail for trackers; for it is not easy to find any trace of a lion’s claw; on the contrary, any sign of a track that is found is so slight and obscure that hunters lose the trail and go astray. You have heard, I am sure, how the ichneumon See Thompson on Aristotle, Historia Animal. ix. 6 (612 a 16 ff.), where, however, the animal’s opponent is the asp. (So also Aelian, De Natura Animal. iii. 22; v. 48; vi. 38.) But cf. 980 e infra ; Aelian, De Natura Animal. viii. 25; x. 47; Nicander, Theriaca , 201. girds itself for battle as thoroughly as any soldier putting on his armour, such a quantity of mud does it don and plaster about its body when it plans to attack the crocodile. Moreover, we see house-martins Cf. Thompson on Aristotle, Historia Animal. ix. 7 (612 b 21 ff.); Pliny, Nat. Hist. x. 92; Philo, 22 (p. 110); Yale Class. Studies , xii. 139, on Anth. Pal. x. 4. 6. preparing for procreation: how well they lay the solid twigs at the bottom to serve as a foundation, then mould the lighter bits about them; and if they perceive that the nest needs a lump of mud to glue it together, they skim over a pond or lake, touching the water with only the tips of their feathers to make them moist, yet not heavy with dampness; then they scoop up dust and so smear over and bind together any parts that begin to sag or loosen. As for the shape of their work, it has no angles nor many sides, but is as smooth and circular as they can make it; such a shape is, in fact, both stable and capacious and provides no hold on the outside for scheming animals. θηρία may be serpents here, or any wild beast, perhaps, such as members of the cat family that relish a diet of birds. There is more than one reason For a collection of the loci communes dealing with swallow, bee, ant, spider, etc., see Dickerman in Trans. Am. Philol. Assoc. xlii (1911), pp. 123 ff. for admiring spiders’ Aristotle, Historia Animal. ix. 39 (623 a 7 ff.); Aelian, De Natura Animal. i. 21; Pliny, Nat. Hist. xi. 79-84; Philo, 17 (p. 107); Philostratus, Imagines , ii. 28. webs, the common model for both women’s looms and fowlers’ Commonly taken as fishermen, but this seems unlikely here. nets; for there is the fineness of the thread and the evenness of the weaving, which has no disconnected threads and nothing like a warp, but is wrought with the even continuity of a thin membrane and a tenacity that comes from a viscous substance inconspicuously worked in. Then too, there is the blending of the colours that gives it an airy, misty look, the better to let it go undetected; and most notable of all is the art itself, like a charioteer’s or a helmsman’s, with which the spinner handles her artifice. When a possible victim is entangled, she perceives it, and uses her wits, like a skilled handler of nets, to close the trap suddenly and make it tight. Since this is daily under our eyes and observation, my account is confirmed. Otherwise it would seem a mere fiction, as I formerly regarded the tale of the Libyan crows Cf . Anth. Pal. ix. 272; Aelian, De Natura Animal. ii. 48; Pliny, Nat. Hist. x. 125; Avianus, fable 27. which, when they are thirsty, throw stones into a pot to fill it and raise the water until it is within their reach; but later when I saw a dog on board ship, since the sailors were away, putting pebbles into a half empty jar of oil, I was amazed at its knowing that lighter substances are forced upward when the heavier settle to the bottom. Similar tales are told of Cretan bees and of geese in Cilicia. Cf . Mor. 510 a-b, which adds the detail that the geese’s flight is by night. Contrast Aelian, De Natura Animal. ii, 1, Pliny, Nat. Hist. x. 60, of cranes. When the bees are going to round some windy promontory, they ballast themselves with little stones Aelian, De Natura Animal. v. 13; Pliny, Nat. Hist. xi. 24, and Ernout, ad loc. ; Dio Chrysostom, xliv, 7. Cf. 979 b infra , of the sea hedgehog; Pliny, Nat. Hist. x. 69. so as not to be carried out to sea; while the geese, in fear of eagles, take a large stone in their beaks whenever they cross Mt. Taurus, as it were reining in and bridling their gaggling loquacity that they may pass over in silence unobserved. It is well known, too, how cranes Cf. 979 b infra ; Aelian, De Natura Animal. iii. 13; Pliny, Nat. Hist. x. 63, of geese; Mair on Oppian, Hal. i. 624; Lucan, v. 713 ff. behave when they fly. Whenever there is a high wind and rough weather they do not fly, as on fine days, in line abreast or in a crescent-shaped curve; but they form at once a compact triangle with the point cleaving the gale that streams past, so that there is no break in the formation. When they have descended to the ground, the sentinels that stand watch at night support themselves on one foot and with the other grasp a stone and hold it firmly Cf. 979 d infra ; Aelian, loc. cit. ; Pliny, Nat. Hist. x. 59. ; the tension of grasping this keeps them awake for a long time; but when they do relax, the stone escapes and quickly rouses the culprit. Cf. the anecdote of Alexander in Ammianus Marcellinus, xvi. 5. 4; of Aristotle in Diogenes Laertius, v. 16. So that I am not at all surprised that Heracles tucked his bow under his arm: Embracing it with mighty arm he sleeps, Keeping his right hand gripped about the club. Nauck, Trag. Graec. Frag. p. 919, Adespoton 416. Nor, again, am I surprised at the man who first guessed how to open an oyster That is, by dropping it in hot water. when I read of the ingenuity of herons. For they swallow a closed mussel and endure the discomfort until they know that it has been softened and relaxed by their internal heat; then they disgorge it wide open and unfolded and extract the meat. Cf. Aelian, De Natura Animal. iii. 20; another procedure is described in v. 35. See also Pliny, Nat. Hist. x. 115, of the shoveller duck; Philo, 31 (p. 116); Antigonus, Hist. Mirab. 41; al. It is impossible to relate in full detail all the methods of production and storage practised by ants, but it would be careless to omit them entirely. Nature has, in fact, nowhere else so small a mirror of greater and nobler enterprises. Just as you may see greater things reflected in a drop of clear water, so among ants there exists the delineation of every virtue. Love and affection are found, Homer, Iliad , xiv. 216. namely their social life. You may see, too, the reflection of courage in their persistence in hard labour. Cf. Plato, Laches , 192 b ff.; we have here the four Platonic virtues, with Love added. There are many seeds of temperance and many of prudence and justice. Now Cleanthes, Von Arnim, S.V.F. i, p. 116, frag. 515; cf. Aelian, De Natura Animal. vi. 50. even though he declared that animals are not endowed with reason, says that he witnessed the following spectacle: some ants came to a strange anthill carrying a dead ant. Other ants then emerged from the hill and seemed, as it were, to hold converse with the first party and then went back again. This happened two or three times until at last they brought up a grub to serve as the dead ant’s ransom, whereupon the first party picked up the grub, handed over the corpse, and departed. A matter obvious to everyone is the consideration ants show when they meet: those that bear no load always give way to those who have one and let them pass. Cf. Aelian, De Natura Animal. ii. 25. Obvious also is the manner in which they gnaw through and dismember things that are difficult to carry or to convey past an obstacle, in order that they may make easy loads for several. And Aratus Phaenomena , 956; Cf. Vergil, Georgics , i. 379 f.; Theophrastus, De Signis , 22. takes it to be a sign of rainy weather when they spread out their eggs and cool them in the open: When from their hollow nest the ants in haste Bring up their eggs; and some do not write eggs here, but provisions, Not oia , but eia : What the ants really carry out in Aratus and Vergil is their pupas, but these are commonly called eggs to this day (Platt, Class. Quart. v. p. 255). The two readings in this passage seem to show that Plutarch had at hand an edition with a commentary; Cf. also 976 f infra , on the interpretation of Archilochus, and Mor. 22 b. in the sense of stored grain which, when they notice that it is growing mildewed and fear that it may decay and spoil, they bring up to the surface. But what goes beyond any other conception of their intelligence is their anticipation of the germination of wheat. You know, of course, that wheat does not remain permanently dry and stable, but expands and lactifies in the process of germination. In order, then, to keep it from running to seed and losing its value as food, and to keep it permanently edible, the ants eat out the germ from which springs the new shoot of wheat. Cf. Pliny, Nat. Hist. xi. 109, and Ernout ad loc. I do not approve of those who, to make a complete study of anthills, inspect them, as it were, anatomically. But, be that as it may, they report that the passage leading downward from the opening is not at all straight or easy for any other creature to traverse; it passes through turns and twists The intricate galleries of anthills were used for purposes of literary comparisons by the ancients: see the fragment of Pherecrates in Mor. 1142 a and Aristophanes, Thesmophoriazusae , 100 (on Timotheüs and Agathon respectively). with branching tunnels and connecting galleries and terminates in three hollow cavities. One of these is their common dwelling-place, another serves as storeroom for provisions, while in the third they deposit the dying. Aelian, De Natura Animal. vi. 43 divides into men’s apartments, women’s apartments, and storerooms; see also Philo, 42 (p. 120), and Boulenger, Animal Mysteries , pp. 128 ff. for a modern account. On the social life of ants (and animals) as contrasted with that of humans see Dio Chrysostom, xl. 32, 40 f.; xlviii. 16. I don’t suppose that you will think it out of order if I introduce elephants directly on top of ants in order that we may concurrently scrutinize the nature of understanding in both the smallest and the largest of creatures, for it is neither suppressed in the latter nor deficient in the former. Let others, then, be astonished that elephants learn, or are taught, to exhibit in the theatre all the many postures and variations of movement that they do, Cf. Mor . 98 e. these being so varied and so complicated to memorize and retain that they are not at all easy even for human artists. For my part, I find the beast’s understanding better manifested in his own spontaneous and uninstructed feelings and movements, in a pure, as it were, and undiluted state. Well, not very long ago at Rome, Cf. Pliny, Nat. Hist. viii. 6, which shows that Plutarch is drawing on literature, not personal observation; Cf. also Aelian, De Natura Animal. ii. 11, for the elaborateness of the manoeuvres; Philostratus, Vita Apoll. ii. 13; Philo, 54 (p. 126); see also 992 b infra . where a large number of elephants were being trained to assume dangerous stances and wheel about in complicated patterns, one of them, who was the slowest to learn and was always being scolded and often punished, was seen at night, alone by himself in the moonlight, voluntarily rehearsing his lessons and practising them. Formerly in Syria, Hagnon Of Tarsus, pupil of Carneades. tells us, an elephant was brought up in its master’s house and every day the keeper, when he received a measure of barley, would filch away and appropriate half of it; but on one occasion, when the master was present and watching, the keeper poured out the whole measure. The elephant gave a look, raised its trunk, and made two piles of the barley, setting aside half of it and thus revealing as eloquently as could be the dishonesty of its keeper. And another elephant, whose keeper used to mix stones and dirt in its barley ration, when the keeper’s meat was cooking, scooped up some ashes and threw them into the pot. Cf. Aelian, De Natura Animal. vi. 52. And another in Rome, being tormented by little boys who pricked its proboscis with their writing styluses, grabbed one of them and raised him into the air as if to dash him to death; but when the spectators cried out, it gently set the child down on the ground again and passed along, thinking it sufficient punishment for one so young to have been frightened. Concerning wild elephants who are self-governing they tell many wonderful tales, particularly the one about the fording of rivers Pliny, Nat. Hist. viii. 11, gives a different account; still different is Aelian, De Natura Animal. vii. 15, and cf. Philostratus, Vita Apoll. ii. 15. : the youngest and smallest volunteers his services to go first into the stream. The others wait on the bank and observe the result, for if his back remains above water, those that are larger than he will have a wide margin of safety to give them confidence. At this point in my discourse, I imagine that I shall do well not to omit the case of the fox, since it is so similar. Now the story-books The authorities on Deucalion’s Flood are assembled by Frazer on Apollodorus, i. 7. 2 (L.C.L.), and more completely in his Folk-Lore in the Old Testament , i, pp. 146 ff. Plutarch is the only Greek author to add the Semitic dove story, though Lucian ( De Dea Syria , 12 ff.) was to add to the other major contaminations. tell us that when Deucalion released a dove from the ark, as long as she returned, it was a certain sign that the storm was still raging; but as soon as she flew away, it was a harbinger of fair weather. So even to this day the Thracians, Cf. 949 d supra and the note. whenever they propose crossing a frozen river, make use of a fox as an indicator of the solidity of the ice. The fox moves ahead slowly and lays her ear to the ice; if she perceives by the sound that the stream is running close underneath, judging that the frozen part has no great depth, but is only thin and insecure, she stands stock still and, if she is permitted, returns to the shore; but if she is reassured by the absence of noise, she crosses over. And let us not declare that this is a nicety of perception unaided by reason; it is, rather, a syllogistic conclusion developed from the evidence of perception: What makes noise must be in motion; what is in motion is not frozen; what is not frozen is liquid; what is liquid gives way. So logicians Specifically Chrysippus ( Cf. von Arnim, S.V.F. ii, pp. 726 f.). Cf. Sextus Empiricus, Outlines of Pyrrhonism , i. 69 (the whole passage i. 62-72 is worth reading); Aelian, De Natura Animal. vi. 59; Philo, 45 (p. 122). assert that a dog, at a point where many paths split off, makes use of a multiple disjunctive For the form of the syllogism see Diogenes Laertius, vii. 81. argument and reasons with himself: Either the wild beast has taken this path, or this, or this. But surely it has not taken this, or this. Then it must have gone by the remaining road. Perception here affords nothing but the minor premiss, while the force of reason gives the major premisses and adds the conclusion to the premisses. A dog, however, does not need such a testimonial, which is both false and fraudulent; for it is perception itself, by means of track and spoor, Cf. Shorey on Plato, Republic , 427 e (L.C.L., vol. I, p. 347, note e ). which indicates the way the creature fled; it does not bother with disjunctive and copulative propositions. The dog’s true capacity may be discerned from many other acts and reactions and the performance of duties, which are neither to be smelled out nor seen by the eye, but can be carried out or perceived only by the use of intelligence and reason. For the philosophic dog see Plato, op. cit. 376 b; the scholia of Olympiodorus add that Socrates’ famous oath by the dog was symbolic of the creature’s rational nature. See also Sinclair, Class. Rev. xlii (1948), p. 61; the parallel passages are collected by J. E. B. Mayor, Class. Rev. xii (1898), pp. 93 ff. I should only make myself ridiculous if I described the dog’s self-control and obedience and sagacity on hunting parties to you who see and handle these matters every day. There was a Roman named Calvus See Aelian, De Natura Animal. vii. 10. slain in the Civil Wars, but no one was able to cut off his head until they encircled and stabbed to death the dog who guarded his master and defended him. And King Pyrrhus Cf. Aelian, loc. cit. ; Pliny, Nat. Hist. viii. 142. on a journey chanced upon a dog guarding the body of a murdered man; in answer to his questions he was told that the dog had remained there without eating for three days and refused to leave. Pyrrhus gave orders for the corpse to be buried and the dog cared for and brought along in his train. A few days later there was an inspection of the soldiers, who marched in front of the king seated on his throne, while the dog lay quietly by his side. But when it saw its master’s murderers filing past, it rushed at them with furious barking and, as it voiced its accusation, turned to look at the king so that not only he, but everyone present, became suspicious of the men. They were at once arrested and when put to the question, with the help of some bits of external evidence as well, they confessed the murder and were punished. The same thing is said to have been done by the poet Hesiod’s Cf. 984 d infra . A different account, omitting the dog, will be found in Mor. 162 c-f (where see Wyttenbach’s note); Cf. also Pollux, Onomasticon , v. 42 and Gabathüler on Anth. Pal. vii. 55 ( Hellenistische Epigramme auf Dichter , p. 31). dog, which convicted the sons of Ganyctor the Naupactian, by whom Hesiod had been murdered. But a matter which carne to the attention of our fathers when they were studying at Athens is even plainer than anything so far mentioned. A certain fellow slipped into the temple of Asclepius, The same story in Aelian, De Natura Animal. vii. 13, indicates a literary source. See now E. R. Dodds, The Greeks and the Irrational , p. 114 and n. 65. took such gold and silver offerings as were not bulky, and made his escape, thinking that he had not been detected. But the watchdog, whose name was Capparus, when none of the sacristans responded to its barking, pursued the escaping temple-thief. First the man threw stones at it, but could not drive it away. When day dawned, the dog did not approach close, but followed the man, always keeping him in sight, and refused the food he offered. When he stopped to rest, the dog passed the night on guard; when he struck out again, the dog got up and kept following, fawning on the other people it met on the road and barking at the man and sticking to his heels. When those who were investigating the robbery learned this from men who had encountered the pair and were told the colour and size of the dog, they pursued all the more vigorously and overtook the man and brought him back from Crommyon. On the return the dog led the procession, capering and exultant, as though it claimed for itself the credit for pursuing and capturing the temple-thief. The people actually voted it a public ration of food and entrusted the charge of this to the priests in perpetuity, thereby imitating the ancient Athenian kindness to the mule. For when Pericles was building the Hecatompedon Better known as the Parthenon; cf. Mor . 349 d, Life of Pericles , xiii. 7 (159 e). on the Acropolis, stones were naturally brought by numerous teams of draught-animals every day. Now one of the mules who had assisted gallantly in the work, but had now been discharged because of old age, used to go down every day to the Ceramicus and meet the beasts which brought the stones, turning back with them and trotting along by their side, as though to encourage and cheer them on. So the people of Athens, admiring its enterprise, gave orders for it to be maintained at the public expense, voting it free meals, as though to an athlete who had succumbed to old age. Cf . Life of Cato Maior , v. 3 (339 a-b). Aelian, De Natura Animal. vi. 49, agrees in the main with Plutarch’s account; Aristotle, Historia Animal. vi. 24 (577 b 34), says merely that a public decree was passed forbidding bakers to drive the creature away from their trays. He adds that the mule was 80 years old and is followed by Pliny, Nat. Hist. viii. 175. There is probably a lacuna before this chapter. Therefore those who deny that there is any kind of justice owed to animals Cf. 999 b infra ; 964 b supra . by us must be conceded to be right so far as marine and deep-sea creatures Cf. additional sources cited by Mair on Oppian, Hal. ii. 43. are concerned; for these are completely lacking in amiability, apathetic, and devoid of all sweetness of disposition. And well did Homer Iliad , xvi. 34. say The gray-green sea bore you, with reference to a man regarded as uncivilized and unsociable, implying that the sea produces nothing friendly or gentle. But a man who would use such speech in regard to land animals is himself cruel and brutal. Or perhaps you will not admit that there was a bond of justice between Lysimachus Mor. 821 a; the companion and successor of Alexander ( c. 360-281 b.c.). Cf. Pliny, Nat. Hist. viii. 143; Aelian, De Natura Animal. vi. 25; and ii. 40 ( cf. vi. 29), of eagles. It may be conjectured that ii. 40 was derived from an original in which ἀετῶν was confused with κυνῶν , as infra . and the Hyrcanian dog which alone stood guard by his corpse and, when his body was cremated, rushed into the flames and hurled itself upon him. Similar stories in Aelian, De Natura Animal. vii. 40. The same is reported to have been done by the eagle Dog and eagle are again confused; but the hovering is here decisive. ( Cf. also Wilamowitz, Hermes , lxiii, p. 380.) The dog reappears in Pollux, v. 42 (where it is King Pyrrhus), an eagle in a similar tale in Pliny, Nat. Hist. x. 18, while Pyrrhus is the name of a dog in Pliny, viii. 144. which was kept by Pyrrhus, not the king, but a certain private citizen; when he died, it kept vigil by his body; at the funeral it hovered about the bier and finally folded its wings, settled on the pyre and was consumed with its master’s body, The elephant of King Porus, Life of Alexander , lx. 13 (699 b-c), with Ziegler’s references ad loc. when he was wounded in the battle against Alexander, gently and solicitously pulled out with its trunk many Each one of the spears in the Life of Alexander . of the javelins sticking in its master. Though it was in a sad state itself, it did not give up until it perceived that the king had lost much blood and was slipping off; then, fearing that he would fall, it gently kneeled and afforded its master a painless glide. Other stories of humane elephants in Aelian, De Natura Animal. iii. 46; al. Bucephalas Cf. Pliny, Nat. Hist. viii. 154; Gellius, Noctes Atticae , v. 2; and see the parallels collected by Sternbach, Wiener Studien , xvi, pp. 17 f. The story is omitted by Plutarch in the Life of Alexander. unsaddled would permit his groom to mount him; but when he was all decked out in his royal accoutrements and collars, he would let no one approach except Alexander himself. If any others tried to come near, he would charge at them loudly neighing and rear and trample any of them who were not quick enough to rush far away and escape.